Cioarei Cave from Boroşteni, Peştişani commune, Gorj County, is the most important Mousterian settlement in Romania as regards the complex interdisciplinary research conducted over more than 20 years (Cârciumaru, 2000, Cârciumaru et al., 2002 and Cârciumaru et al., 2000). The cave was carved in a limestone spur of Barremian–Aptian age which descends from the Vâlcan Mountains, part of the southern Carpathians, located at an absolute altitude of 350 m and a relative altitude of approximately 30 m in relation to the Bistricioara river flowing nearby. The access to the cave is easy and the entrance is southwest oriented. It is a relatively small cave, only 27 m long, roughly 7 m wide and an area of about 85 square metres. It is completely dry, slightly descending, devoid of currents. All possible couloirs and siphons, which had existed in the active period of the cave were clogged or closed by thick crusts of calcite before the deposit sedimentation. In the approximately 5-m-thick deposit of Cioarei Cave, was discovered the oldest Romanian Mousterian, assigned to the last interglacial and first half of the Würm glacial stage, represented mainly by lithic tools made of a great variety of local raw material sources (Cârciumaru, 2000, Cârciumaru et al., 2002 and Cârciumaru et al., 2000). Of the entire cave deposit, the Mousterian was identified in layers A–J, but high densities of materials were recorded in five layers: E, F, G, H and J. C-14 dating provided ages ranging between 51.900 + 5.300/–3.200 BP (GrN 15048) and 37.750 ± 950 BP (GrN 13005).

The oldest stone ochre preparation containers known so far have been recovered from the Mousterian layers of Cioarei Cave. They are unique in terms of their being made of the upper part of stalagmites and stalagmite crusts. Scraping and polish marks in the middle of the hollows were observed under microscope (Fig. 2). Ochre deposits are visible mainly inside them and only in one case on the outer surface (Fig. 1). Also, ochre fragments of different shades, whose composition was chemically analysed, were also recovered from these layers (Cârciumaru et al., 2012 and Cârciumaru and Ţuţuianu-Cârciumaru, 2009). During excavations, ochre was systematically gathered from four sections, X–XIII (an overall area of 14 square metres) totalling 55 samples. The total weight of ochre in these sections is 375.34 g. Chemically, several samples seem to be aluminium silicates rich in calcium carbonate. What is surprising about the chemically analysed samples is that they contain low levels of oxide and iron trioxide, as well as manganese oxide (Table 1) (Cârciumaru, 2000).

Most samples (182.5 g, 51.71%) come from layer E and a few from layer F (61.14 g, 10.34%). As related to the volume of the excavated sediment, depending on sections, ochre is not really that frequent. Thus, for the richest strata of ochre, in layer E, section X, density is 15.41 g/cubic metre while in layer F it is 5.79 g/cubic metre, and in section XI for layer E density reaches 31 g/cubic metre (Cârciumaru, 2000). Therefore, given that in four sections, totalling 14 square metres, excavated as far as about 5 m deep, only 375.34 g of ochre were discovered, it is unlikely that there should have been such so powerful a contamination of containers in the sediment (Table 2 and Table 3).

Of all layers assigned to the Mousterian, geological layer H represents the richest habitation, dated 47.900 + 1800/–1500 B.P. (GrN 15054). According to palynological studies, it was deposited in a “steppe-tundra” landscape (Cârciumaru, 1977). Mammal fauna associations indicated in this part of the deposit reveal a succession of sequences of cold climate such as Chionomys nivalis, Crocuta spelaea, Ursus spelaeus, Cervus elaphus, Equus sp., Capra ibex, Bovidae, with others typical of climatic improvement like Hystrix vinogradovi, Vulpes vulpes, Ursus arctos, Sus scrofa, Cervus elaphus (Patou-Mathis, 2000-2001 and Terzea, 1987).

Geologically, layer H is made mostly of a sedimentary mass of loamy-argillaceous fraction, mixed discontinuously with angular cryoclastic limestone fragments. Limestone fragments lack a marked frost-susceptible character, while intense alteration processes are not quite visible. Moreover, ferric hydroxides are completely missing (Cârciumaru, 2000).

Culturally speaking, layer H is characterized by numerous lithic tools (245 items) as it was the most intensely inhabited layer of the entire period in which the Neanderthal man was present in the cave. The lithic materials were made mostly of magmatic rocks and are represented by blanks, flakes with a cutting edge on a large part of the periphery, flakes with one or two backs, cores, tools etc. (Cârciumaru, 2000, Cârciumaru et al., 2002 and Cârciumaru et al., 2000).

In layer H, at 275–285 cm deep, among the lithic tools, was found a strange spherical-ellipsoidal object, which we have likened to a “bubble”. When found in the cave deposit, it was covered with a film of calcium carbonate, white in colour. The most striking thing was the rather large weight of the piece in relation to its volume. Curiosity prompted us to remove the crust using a weak hydrochloric acid solution, which made us abandon this assumption.

Later on, given the discovery of several urchins in Mousterian layers in Europe and the relatively spherical shape, resembling to certain species of this type, we also assumed that our own finding could have belonged to an urchin internal mould. The absence of external ornamentation, specific to an urchin, urged us to perform the tomographic analysis of this object. The internal images obtained using a “General Electric HiSpeed Dual” tomograph which allows 3D reconstructions and digital image processing (Fig. 3) did not confirm a typically urchin inner structure. Instead, we found that it was a “petrographic formation” with a spherical to ellipsoidal morphology, with the concretionary aspect of a geode. Images revealed the typical characteristics of a geode, defined by successive concentric growth, and the presence of an inner cavity, which might contain forms of crystals (Fig. 3/3–6). The high hardness of the geode and the aspect of the surface indicate the origin from an amorphous state (opal?). Such geodes are common especially in hydrothermal areas in the vicinity of volcanic regions and, rarely, in areas with metamorphism. Anyway, the origin of geodes excludes their formation in limestones of Barremian–Aptian age in which Cioarei Cave was formed. This means that the geode was undoubtedly introduced into the cave by the Neanderthal man, to the extent that natural phenomena which might have caused its transportation to the cave deposit are also excluded.

The existence of volcanic activity near the cave is proved by the emergences of Palaeozoic magmatites in the shape of granites and granodiorites formed and crossed by the tributaries of the valley of the Bistricioara which flows at the foot of the cave. Magmatic and metamorphic rocks have a highly significant spread in the region (Bercia et al., 1968). Consequently, the geode is likely to have been found by the Neanderthal man in the Bistricioara valley gravels that were the main source of supply with magmatic and metamorphic rocks used to make specific lithic tools.

The geode is in the shape of a sphere with a maximum diameter, after removing the crust, of 77.0 mm and a minimum of 61.2 mm. It weighs 479.43 g. The relatively large weight of the object compared to its volume is given by the very high density of the geode of 3.99525 g/cm³. We now have in mind the fact that the most common rocks used by the Neanderthals for knapping have much lower densities: flint and jasper – 2.1–2.4 g/cm³, quartz – 2.65 g/cm³, granite – 2.7 g/cm³, basalt – 3.0 g/cm³, gneiss – 2.8 g/cm³, compact limestone – 2.7 g/cm³. The high density of the geode is probably caused by the existence of metalliferous formations in its composition. Geode surface is not uniform, having numerous circular cuts 6–8 mm in diameter and slightly deep ditches of various lengths, resulting from the dehydration of the surface (Fig. 4/1–3).

Although that particular geode was dipped into hydrochloric acid, its surface preserved traces of red ochre used by the Neanderthal man to paint it (Fig. 4/4–11) and even the sediment of the layer in which it had lain. In most cases, the red ochre is covered by a black substance (some kind of resin or perhaps black bitumen) (Fig. 4/6–8; 10–11). The overlapping of the two layers is fairly visible, the black substance being probably responsible for the proper conservation of the red ochre. These observations were only possible after the recent examination of the geode under the Keyence VHX-600 high-resolution digital microscope. In this stage of research, the chemical composition of the material covering the red ochre is difficult to determine for the amount preserved is insignificant. A physicochemical determination would mean to sacrifice the evidence which proves the overlapping of the two layers applied by the Neanderthal man.

As regards the possibility of some contamination of the geode having occurred in the sediment, certain things should be mentioned. As can be seen in Table 2 and Table 3, stratum H revealed the smallest quantity of ochre in Mousterian layers, with samples totalling 3.33 g gathered from four sections. Furthermore, stratum H lies between two layers which are low in ochre, namely stratum I, in which no sample was found, and stratum G from which only two samples were taken. The insignificant quantity of ochre discovered in stratum H and related strata could not have contaminated an artefact to such an extent. As previously mentioned, the sedimentological analysis also revealed that stratum H lacks ferric hydroxides (Cârciumaru, 2000).

Taking into account the recent discussions on the symbolic significance of ochre, fossils and minerals to the Neanderthal man, we consider that the Cioarei Cave finding of a geode painted with ochre increases its aesthetic value and gives additional attributes which allow some symbolic interpretation. We now have at least one certainty regarding the use of ochre by Neanderthals, namely to paint certain objects that, at first sight, have no direct practical use, in order to confer possible symbolic attributes on them, as in this particular case, by applying the ochre on the geode which itself carries a definite significance.

Bordes (1952) stated that it is difficult to think that colorants might have served to anything else but to the body painting of the Neanderthal man or maybe to the painting of animal skins used to make clothes. In turn, Leroi-Gourhan (1964a) acknowledged the presence of ochre fragments in layers specific to the end of the Mousterian, but found no accessible explanation regarding its use, so long as we do not know it to have been used by the Neanderthal man for paintings or burials with ochre. Nevertheless, he discarded the idea that, in the Mousterian, ochre was completely devoid of significance (Leroi-Gourhan, 1964b). Moreover, he considered it an equivalent of blood and, consequently, a symbol of life.

In order to demonstrate the Neanderthal man's use of ochre, emphasis was laid on usage traces preserved directly on the ochre blocks found. Furthermore, Couraud (1983) attempted to systematize the way of ochre use in prehistory. It is more a logical-imaginative model, unfortunately not supported by direct evidence regarding the use of ochre for a particular purpose. More recently, technological, traseological and experimental observations have been made (Soressi and d’Errico, 2007). Surprisingly, of the samples examined from Pech de l’Azé I and Pech de l’Azé IV, only the manganese dioxide ones, black in colour, preserve use traces, while the red and yellow ochre lacks such marks. The authors assure us that the scraping and abrading marks resulted from the use of a flint tool or bone flake, through gestures following certain rules, in order to use it directly probably on dry or wet animal skin or for body painting of the human skin as well as to obtain powder. The Neanderthal man admittedly obtained powder of different shades of ochre and used it as such or, more likely, in mixture with a binder.

According to Otte (1996), the Neanderthal man would bring, into his caves, unusual objects he recognized and extracted from their natural context in order to confer on them a new value in a “cultured” environment (p. 177). He considers that choice and transport of these objects to the Neanderthal man's settlements are sufficient to demonstrate their symbolic nature. Soressi and d’Errico (2007) seem to doubt this and consider that these aspects “evoke, but do not demonstrate their symbolic use” (p. 303), insisting upon the need to study ochre and other materials with symbolic value using modern microscopic means in order to discover possible marks resulted from their usage in various ways.

Studies in recent years have shown that the presence of ochre in several Mousterian settlements may be directly associated with its use by the Neanderthal man (Cârciumaru et al., 2012, Cârciumaru and Ţuţuianu-Cârciumaru, 2009 and Soressi and d’Errico, 2007). Most findings fall into a time frame ranging between 60.000 and 40.000 years (Langley et al., 2008 and Roebroeks et al., 2012), but recent finds from Maastricht-Belvédère, Netherlands, have revealed that ochre was used as early as 200–250 kyr (Roebroeks et al., 2012). If its use cannot be questioned, the association with symbolism is rather difficult for, in this case, evidence of how it was used must be brought. Chase and Dibble (1987) note that, although the findings of pigments may reveal some aesthetic sense, it is not quite clear how these colours were used. As a matter of fact, Belfer-Cohen and Hovers (2010) remarked that, throughout the time, modern behaviour was connected to modern people, while its association with the Neanderthal man requires rigorous evidence. Given these considerations, following the analyses conducted and presented in this study, the discovery of the geode in Cioarei Cave provides evidence which is necessary to understand how ochre was used by the Neanderthal man, namely to paint objects that possess certain particular connotations.

As we have seen, tomographic research led to the identification of the Cioarei Cave “bubble”, as was initially called (Moncel et al., 2009), and its assignment to a geode-type concretion. Of course, to the Neanderthal man the genesis of the object itself was less important as he was drawn by the external aspect of the geode which presented a number of cavities (Fig. 4/1-3), its polished appearance, spherical to ellipsoidal shape, heavy as compared to the other rocks of the same volume, high surface hardness and even its colour. As he was extremely familiar with the mechanical characteristics of rocks, the Neanderthal man could not have ignored these features or let himself be unimpressed by them. Leroi-Gourhan, 1964a and Leroi-Gourhan, 1964b offers an interpretation of these materials, considering that they represent the oldest evidence which confirms the Neanderthal man's recognizing shapes, a very important sign of the search for the natural fantastic and a proof of an increasing aesthetic sense pushing him towards the mystery of the bizarre shapes of fossils.

According to petrographic studies, the raw material used in Cioarei Cave can be found in abundance along the Bistricioara Valley, which flows at the foot of the cave, and around the cave. The geode might have very well been found among the pebble of the same valley. It is the morphology, aspect and extremely special features, somewhat different from the other rocks, which drew the Neanderthal man's attention, especially its very large weight in relation to its volume, due to the special density given by the internal structure with possible metalliferous constituents. Although its shape suggests its usage as a hammer, the Neanderthal man did not use it for this purpose. Though probably well aware from the beginning that the geode was not in his sphere of interest as were the other types of pebble used to make lithic tools, curiosity, and maybe not only that, pushed him to transport the geode to the cave. We may assume that the unusualness of the geode as compared to the other materials, so necessary for his daily activities and essential for his survival, was what prompted him to endow the geode with aesthetic attributes that could not leave him indifferent. He might just as well have regarded it as a precious object that, later on, he would treat in a particularly different manner from other objects (Moncel et al., 2009).

If the Neanderthal man introduced the geode in its current form into Cioarei Cave, we may think about his extraordinary ability to recognize the uncommonness of such an object and consequently treat it as a strange object. In fact, Eliade, 1987 and Eliade, 1989 would admit that we can imagine that prehistoric man perceived certain objects as carrying meanings associating the perception of the eye and of spirit. The aesthetic significance conferred by the Neanderthal man is beyond any suspicion because it is not confined to its identification as a strange object. Its having been painted with ochre is certainly an addition that might confer symbolic value on it.

In our opinion, the discovery of the ochre preparation containers and the ochre-painted geode in Cioarei Cave is already a certainty of the Neanderthal man's awareness of the meaning of painting objects with ochre in order to give or emphasize their symbolic role.